Inspiring Innovation For A Better World

Q: Could you tell us what first sparked your interest in science?

A: My parents were both scientists, so I had some exposure to the scientific world early on. But in my childhood, I was more drawn to literature—I enjoyed reading and writing far more than science. It wasn’t until seventh or eighth grade that things shifted. A particularly good science teacher and some hands-on experiments sparked my interest in physics, and from there, my curiosity gradually grew.

Q: You didn’t get into IIT or medical college. How did that shape your path?

A: At the time, I applied to both IIT and Christian Medical College, but didn’t make it—partly because my school curriculum didn’t align with the exam patterns, and my parents didn’t believe in coaching classes. It was discouraging, but then I appeared for the National Science Talent Search exam, and to my surprise, I came first in my state. That gave me the confidence to pursue basic science seriously.

Q: What led you to pursue physics in Baroda instead of a mainstream engineering or medical track?

A: My mother, more than my father, encouraged me to consider basic sciences. Baroda University had a very progressive physics department at the time, with a modern curriculum inspired by faculty who had returned from the US. Physics felt intellectually rich, and at that age, I still saw biology as something dry—mostly memorization. So I chose physics, thinking it represented the ‘real’ science.

Q: How did you end up going to the US for your PhD?

A: That wasn’t part of some grand plan. My father was on a short sabbatical in the US, and around that time, Ohio University reached out to our department in Baroda, inviting applications. It wasn’t a top-tier school, but the faculty had solid backgrounds. My father encouraged me to apply—he believed that if I worked hard, I could succeed anywhere. In hindsight, it gave me room to grow and figure out what I truly wanted.

Q: What was your experience like during your PhD in physics?

A: I completed my PhD in physics at Ohio University, but I didn’t enjoy the research. I picked a problem in condensed matter theory that didn’t interest me, and I lacked the motivation to make real progress. I spent a lot of time hiking and even learning to play chess. Looking back, my work wasn’t impactful—but those years gave me space to grow up and reflect on what I truly cared about.

Q: What made you switch to biology after completing your PhD?

A: By the time I finished my PhD, I realized I didn’t want to spend my life doing second-rate physics. Biology, on the other hand, was tackling big questions—how the brain works, how proteins function, how life originates. I didn’t know much biology, but the field felt wide open. So I decided to start over and pursue a second PhD in biology. It was a risk, but it felt right.

Q: How difficult was it to switch fields and return to student life again?

A: It wasn’t easy. I was married with two small children, and I had to take undergraduate biology courses just to catch up. But we moved to UC San Diego, which had a great biology program and student housing overlooking the ocean. The environment made a big difference, and I was finally excited about what I was learning.

Q: Did your physics background help you in biology?

A: Yes—and no. My training in physics helped me with calculations and thinking quantitatively. That became useful when estimating whether certain experiments, like determining ribosome structure, would even work. But to truly contribute to biology, I had to stop thinking like a physicist and start asking questions that mattered to biologists. That mental shift was essential.

Q: For those unfamiliar, what exactly is a ribosome and why is it so important?

A: Ribosomes are molecular machines inside our cells that read genetic instructions and assemble proteins. And proteins do nearly everything—carry oxygen, detect light, help us move, think, and even heal. So while DNA carries the information, it’s the ribosome that turns that information into action. Without ribosomes, genes would just sit there unused.

Q: How did working on ribosomes become the centerpiece of your career?

A: I was fascinated by the scale of the challenge. Ribosomes are massive and complex—hundreds of thousands of atoms. Solving their structure felt like trying to map a city molecule by molecule. But it was also central to understanding life. I knew that if I could contribute meaningfully here, it would matter.

Q: Was there a defining “high point” in your ribosome research?

A: Absolutely. One moment stands out clearly—when we got our first clear images of parts of the ribosome. Seeing the structure emerge on the screen after years of effort was deeply fulfilling. More than awards, that moment of clarity was when we knew we had achieved something real.

Q: You gave up a comfortable job in Utah to move to Cambridge. What drove that decision?

A: It was one of the hardest choices I made. I had a great job, good salary, wonderful colleagues, and a beautiful home in Salt Lake City. But Cambridge offered stability of funding and the ideal environment to focus entirely on the ribosome. I knew that if I stayed in Utah and treated ribosome research as a side project, I wouldn’t be competitive. So I took the leap, hoping it would work out—and thankfully, it did.

Q: What kept you going through the more uncertain phases of your journey?

A: It was a mix of things. Early on, survival played a big role—I had a family to support. Curiosity drove the choice of problems, and over time, I kept trying to give myself the best chance to succeed. Recognition wasn’t on my mind initially. That comes later, when others start to see the impact of your work.

Q: How important is competition in the world of scientific research?

A: Very important, especially for major discoveries. Once something is uncovered, it’s out there—no one gets credit for finding it again. So being first matters. It’s not like surgery or teaching, where multiple people can do equally valuable work. In science, timing can define legacy.

Q: With the rise of AI, how do you see it transforming biology?

A: AI and computational methods are already reshaping biology. From analyzing genomes to modeling protein structures, these tools are accelerating discoveries. It’s not just about machine learning—statistics, data science, and image processing are now integral to modern biological research.

Q: A student asks: What defines life at the molecular level?

A: That’s a hard one. Life is often defined as a self-replicating, evolvable system. But that’s a narrow view. If we found life on another planet, it might not follow the same rules. Fundamentally, molecules don’t “know” anything—they just behave based on physics and chemistry. What we call life emerges from those interactions.

Q: Another student asks: How do individual cells give rise to consciousness?

A: We don’t really know. Consciousness is likely an emergent property—something that arises when networks of neurons become complex enough. But it’s still one of the biggest open questions in science. I find it fascinating, but I don’t work on it—I just admire the progress from a distance.

Q: What advice would you give to young students pursuing science today?

A: Try to build a broad foundation—study math, physics, chemistry, and biology for as long as you can before specializing. Those subjects often intersect, and you’ll need all of them. Also, don’t just chase what’s fashionable. Choose questions that genuinely interest you and that feel important, not just interesting.

Q: What fields excite you the most in the coming decades?

A: Neuroscience, definitely. Questions like how memory is stored or how the brain interprets a familiar face are still wide open. Developmental biology is another—understanding how a single cell becomes an entire organism. And outside biology, I’m excited about sustainability: biodegradable materials, non-lithium energy storage, and better medical technologies. There’s meaningful work to be done everywhere.

Q: You’ve written two popular science books—what was that experience like?

A: Rewarding, but very hard work. ‘Gene Machine’ and ‘Why We Die’ each took years to write. My editors weren’t scientists, which helped—they forced me to simplify and clarify. Writing a book is only worth it if you’re passionate about the subject. Otherwise, the effort isn’t justified.

Q: Any final thoughts for students or aspiring researchers watching this?

A: Be open to change. If you find something that excites you more than your current path, don’t be afraid to start over. Stay curious, stay persistent, and don’t lose sight of the bigger questions. Science is full of them—and your generation has a chance to answer many.

Q: Could you tell us what first sparked your interest in science?

A: My parents were both scientists, so I had some exposure to the scientific world early on. But in my childhood, I was more drawn to literature—I enjoyed reading and writing far more than science. It wasn’t until seventh or eighth grade that things shifted. A particularly good science teacher and some hands-on experiments sparked my interest in physics, and from there, my curiosity gradually grew.

Q: You didn’t get into IIT or medical college. How did that shape your path?

A: At the time, I applied to both IIT and Christian Medical College, but didn’t make it—partly because my school curriculum didn’t align with the exam patterns, and my parents didn’t believe in coaching classes. It was discouraging, but then I appeared for the National Science Talent Search exam, and to my surprise, I came first in my state. That gave me the confidence to pursue basic science seriously.

Q: What led you to pursue physics in Baroda instead of a mainstream engineering or medical track?

A: My mother, more than my father, encouraged me to consider basic sciences. Baroda University had a very progressive physics department at the time, with a modern curriculum inspired by faculty who had returned from the US. Physics felt intellectually rich, and at that age, I still saw biology as something dry—mostly memorization. So I chose physics, thinking it represented the ‘real’ science.

Q: How did you end up going to the US for your PhD?

A: That wasn’t part of some grand plan. My father was on a short sabbatical in the US, and around that time, Ohio University reached out to our department in Baroda, inviting applications. It wasn’t a top-tier school, but the faculty had solid backgrounds. My father encouraged me to apply—he believed that if I worked hard, I could succeed anywhere. In hindsight, it gave me room to grow and figure out what I truly wanted.

Q: What was your experience like during your PhD in physics?

A: I completed my PhD in physics at Ohio University, but I didn’t enjoy the research. I picked a problem in condensed matter theory that didn’t interest me, and I lacked the motivation to make real progress. I spent a lot of time hiking and even learning to play chess. Looking back, my work wasn’t impactful—but those years gave me space to grow up and reflect on what I truly cared about.

Q: What made you switch to biology after completing your PhD?

A: By the time I finished my PhD, I realized I didn’t want to spend my life doing second-rate physics. Biology, on the other hand, was tackling big questions—how the brain works, how proteins function, how life originates. I didn’t know much biology, but the field felt wide open. So I decided to start over and pursue a second PhD in biology. It was a risk, but it felt right.

Q: How difficult was it to switch fields and return to student life again?

A: It wasn’t easy. I was married with two small children, and I had to take undergraduate biology courses just to catch up. But we moved to UC San Diego, which had a great biology program and student housing overlooking the ocean. The environment made a big difference, and I was finally excited about what I was learning.

Q: Did your physics background help you in biology?

A: Yes—and no. My training in physics helped me with calculations and thinking quantitatively. That became useful when estimating whether certain experiments, like determining ribosome structure, would even work. But to truly contribute to biology, I had to stop thinking like a physicist and start asking questions that mattered to biologists. That mental shift was essential.

Q: For those unfamiliar, what exactly is a ribosome and why is it so important?

A: Ribosomes are molecular machines inside our cells that read genetic instructions and assemble proteins. And proteins do nearly everything—carry oxygen, detect light, help us move, think, and even heal. So while DNA carries the information, it’s the ribosome that turns that information into action. Without ribosomes, genes would just sit there unused.

Q: How did working on ribosomes become the centerpiece of your career?

A: I was fascinated by the scale of the challenge. Ribosomes are massive and complex—hundreds of thousands of atoms. Solving their structure felt like trying to map a city molecule by molecule. But it was also central to understanding life. I knew that if I could contribute meaningfully here, it would matter.

Q: Was there a defining “high point” in your ribosome research?

A: Absolutely. One moment stands out clearly—when we got our first clear images of parts of the ribosome. Seeing the structure emerge on the screen after years of effort was deeply fulfilling. More than awards, that moment of clarity was when we knew we had achieved something real.

Q: You gave up a comfortable job in Utah to move to Cambridge. What drove that decision?

A: It was one of the hardest choices I made. I had a great job, good salary, wonderful colleagues, and a beautiful home in Salt Lake City. But Cambridge offered stability of funding and the ideal environment to focus entirely on the ribosome. I knew that if I stayed in Utah and treated ribosome research as a side project, I wouldn’t be competitive. So I took the leap, hoping it would work out—and thankfully, it did.

Q: What kept you going through the more uncertain phases of your journey?

A: It was a mix of things. Early on, survival played a big role—I had a family to support. Curiosity drove the choice of problems, and over time, I kept trying to give myself the best chance to succeed. Recognition wasn’t on my mind initially. That comes later, when others start to see the impact of your work.

Q: How important is competition in the world of scientific research?

A: Very important, especially for major discoveries. Once something is uncovered, it’s out there—no one gets credit for finding it again. So being first matters. It’s not like surgery or teaching, where multiple people can do equally valuable work. In science, timing can define legacy.

Q: With the rise of AI, how do you see it transforming biology?

A: AI and computational methods are already reshaping biology. From analyzing genomes to modeling protein structures, these tools are accelerating discoveries. It’s not just about machine learning—statistics, data science, and image processing are now integral to modern biological research.

Q: A student asks: What defines life at the molecular level?

A: That’s a hard one. Life is often defined as a self-replicating, evolvable system. But that’s a narrow view. If we found life on another planet, it might not follow the same rules. Fundamentally, molecules don’t “know” anything—they just behave based on physics and chemistry. What we call life emerges from those interactions.

Q: Another student asks: How do individual cells give rise to consciousness?

A: We don’t really know. Consciousness is likely an emergent property—something that arises when networks of neurons become complex enough. But it’s still one of the biggest open questions in science. I find it fascinating, but I don’t work on it—I just admire the progress from a distance.

Q: What advice would you give to young students pursuing science today?

A: Try to build a broad foundation—study math, physics, chemistry, and biology for as long as you can before specializing. Those subjects often intersect, and you’ll need all of them. Also, don’t just chase what’s fashionable. Choose questions that genuinely interest you and that feel important, not just interesting.

Q: What fields excite you the most in the coming decades?

A: Neuroscience, definitely. Questions like how memory is stored or how the brain interprets a familiar face are still wide open. Developmental biology is another—understanding how a single cell becomes an entire organism. And outside biology, I’m excited about sustainability: biodegradable materials, non-lithium energy storage, and better medical technologies. There’s meaningful work to be done everywhere.

Q: You’ve written two popular science books—what was that experience like?

A: Rewarding, but very hard work. ‘Gene Machine’ and ‘Why We Die’ each took years to write. My editors weren’t scientists, which helped—they forced me to simplify and clarify. Writing a book is only worth it if you’re passionate about the subject. Otherwise, the effort isn’t justified.

Q: Any final thoughts for students or aspiring researchers watching this?

A: Be open to change. If you find something that excites you more than your current path, don’t be afraid to start over. Stay curious, stay persistent, and don’t lose sight of the bigger questions. Science is full of them—and your generation has a chance to answer many.

Q: Could you tell us what first sparked your interest in science?

A: My parents were both scientists, so I had some exposure to the scientific world early on. But in my childhood, I was more drawn to literature—I enjoyed reading and writing far more than science. It wasn’t until seventh or eighth grade that things shifted. A particularly good science teacher and some hands-on experiments sparked my interest in physics, and from there, my curiosity gradually grew.

Q: You didn’t get into IIT or medical college. How did that shape your path?

A: At the time, I applied to both IIT and Christian Medical College, but didn’t make it—partly because my school curriculum didn’t align with the exam patterns, and my parents didn’t believe in coaching classes. It was discouraging, but then I appeared for the National Science Talent Search exam, and to my surprise, I came first in my state. That gave me the confidence to pursue basic science seriously.

Q: What led you to pursue physics in Baroda instead of a mainstream engineering or medical track?

A: My mother, more than my father, encouraged me to consider basic sciences. Baroda University had a very progressive physics department at the time, with a modern curriculum inspired by faculty who had returned from the US. Physics felt intellectually rich, and at that age, I still saw biology as something dry—mostly memorization. So I chose physics, thinking it represented the ‘real’ science.

Q: How did you end up going to the US for your PhD?

A: That wasn’t part of some grand plan. My father was on a short sabbatical in the US, and around that time, Ohio University reached out to our department in Baroda, inviting applications. It wasn’t a top-tier school, but the faculty had solid backgrounds. My father encouraged me to apply—he believed that if I worked hard, I could succeed anywhere. In hindsight, it gave me room to grow and figure out what I truly wanted.

Q: What was your experience like during your PhD in physics?

A: I completed my PhD in physics at Ohio University, but I didn’t enjoy the research. I picked a problem in condensed matter theory that didn’t interest me, and I lacked the motivation to make real progress. I spent a lot of time hiking and even learning to play chess. Looking back, my work wasn’t impactful—but those years gave me space to grow up and reflect on what I truly cared about.

Q: What made you switch to biology after completing your PhD?

A: By the time I finished my PhD, I realized I didn’t want to spend my life doing second-rate physics. Biology, on the other hand, was tackling big questions—how the brain works, how proteins function, how life originates. I didn’t know much biology, but the field felt wide open. So I decided to start over and pursue a second PhD in biology. It was a risk, but it felt right.

Q: How difficult was it to switch fields and return to student life again?

A: It wasn’t easy. I was married with two small children, and I had to take undergraduate biology courses just to catch up. But we moved to UC San Diego, which had a great biology program and student housing overlooking the ocean. The environment made a big difference, and I was finally excited about what I was learning.

Q: Did your physics background help you in biology?

A: Yes—and no. My training in physics helped me with calculations and thinking quantitatively. That became useful when estimating whether certain experiments, like determining ribosome structure, would even work. But to truly contribute to biology, I had to stop thinking like a physicist and start asking questions that mattered to biologists. That mental shift was essential.

Q: For those unfamiliar, what exactly is a ribosome and why is it so important?

A: Ribosomes are molecular machines inside our cells that read genetic instructions and assemble proteins. And proteins do nearly everything—carry oxygen, detect light, help us move, think, and even heal. So while DNA carries the information, it’s the ribosome that turns that information into action. Without ribosomes, genes would just sit there unused.

Q: How did working on ribosomes become the centerpiece of your career?

A: I was fascinated by the scale of the challenge. Ribosomes are massive and complex—hundreds of thousands of atoms. Solving their structure felt like trying to map a city molecule by molecule. But it was also central to understanding life. I knew that if I could contribute meaningfully here, it would matter.

Q: Was there a defining “high point” in your ribosome research?

A: Absolutely. One moment stands out clearly—when we got our first clear images of parts of the ribosome. Seeing the structure emerge on the screen after years of effort was deeply fulfilling. More than awards, that moment of clarity was when we knew we had achieved something real.

Q: You gave up a comfortable job in Utah to move to Cambridge. What drove that decision?

A: It was one of the hardest choices I made. I had a great job, good salary, wonderful colleagues, and a beautiful home in Salt Lake City. But Cambridge offered stability of funding and the ideal environment to focus entirely on the ribosome. I knew that if I stayed in Utah and treated ribosome research as a side project, I wouldn’t be competitive. So I took the leap, hoping it would work out—and thankfully, it did.

Q: What kept you going through the more uncertain phases of your journey?

A: It was a mix of things. Early on, survival played a big role—I had a family to support. Curiosity drove the choice of problems, and over time, I kept trying to give myself the best chance to succeed. Recognition wasn’t on my mind initially. That comes later, when others start to see the impact of your work.

Q: How important is competition in the world of scientific research?

A: Very important, especially for major discoveries. Once something is uncovered, it’s out there—no one gets credit for finding it again. So being first matters. It’s not like surgery or teaching, where multiple people can do equally valuable work. In science, timing can define legacy.

Q: With the rise of AI, how do you see it transforming biology?

A: AI and computational methods are already reshaping biology. From analyzing genomes to modeling protein structures, these tools are accelerating discoveries. It’s not just about machine learning—statistics, data science, and image processing are now integral to modern biological research.

Q: A student asks: What defines life at the molecular level?

A: That’s a hard one. Life is often defined as a self-replicating, evolvable system. But that’s a narrow view. If we found life on another planet, it might not follow the same rules. Fundamentally, molecules don’t “know” anything—they just behave based on physics and chemistry. What we call life emerges from those interactions.

Q: Another student asks: How do individual cells give rise to consciousness?

A: We don’t really know. Consciousness is likely an emergent property—something that arises when networks of neurons become complex enough. But it’s still one of the biggest open questions in science. I find it fascinating, but I don’t work on it—I just admire the progress from a distance.

Q: What advice would you give to young students pursuing science today?

A: Try to build a broad foundation—study math, physics, chemistry, and biology for as long as you can before specializing. Those subjects often intersect, and you’ll need all of them. Also, don’t just chase what’s fashionable. Choose questions that genuinely interest you and that feel important, not just interesting.

Q: What fields excite you the most in the coming decades?

A: Neuroscience, definitely. Questions like how memory is stored or how the brain interprets a familiar face are still wide open. Developmental biology is another—understanding how a single cell becomes an entire organism. And outside biology, I’m excited about sustainability: biodegradable materials, non-lithium energy storage, and better medical technologies. There’s meaningful work to be done everywhere.

Q: You’ve written two popular science books—what was that experience like?

A: Rewarding, but very hard work. ‘Gene Machine’ and ‘Why We Die’ each took years to write. My editors weren’t scientists, which helped—they forced me to simplify and clarify. Writing a book is only worth it if you’re passionate about the subject. Otherwise, the effort isn’t justified.

Q: Any final thoughts for students or aspiring researchers watching this?

A: Be open to change. If you find something that excites you more than your current path, don’t be afraid to start over. Stay curious, stay persistent, and don’t lose sight of the bigger questions. Science is full of them—and your generation has a chance to answer many.

Q: Could you tell us what first sparked your interest in science?

A: My parents were both scientists, so I had some exposure to the scientific world early on. But in my childhood, I was more drawn to literature—I enjoyed reading and writing far more than science. It wasn’t until seventh or eighth grade that things shifted. A particularly good science teacher and some hands-on experiments sparked my interest in physics, and from there, my curiosity gradually grew.

Q: You didn’t get into IIT or medical college. How did that shape your path?

A: At the time, I applied to both IIT and Christian Medical College, but didn’t make it—partly because my school curriculum didn’t align with the exam patterns, and my parents didn’t believe in coaching classes. It was discouraging, but then I appeared for the National Science Talent Search exam, and to my surprise, I came first in my state. That gave me the confidence to pursue basic science seriously.

Q: What led you to pursue physics in Baroda instead of a mainstream engineering or medical track?

A: My mother, more than my father, encouraged me to consider basic sciences. Baroda University had a very progressive physics department at the time, with a modern curriculum inspired by faculty who had returned from the US. Physics felt intellectually rich, and at that age, I still saw biology as something dry—mostly memorization. So I chose physics, thinking it represented the ‘real’ science.

Q: How did you end up going to the US for your PhD?

A: That wasn’t part of some grand plan. My father was on a short sabbatical in the US, and around that time, Ohio University reached out to our department in Baroda, inviting applications. It wasn’t a top-tier school, but the faculty had solid backgrounds. My father encouraged me to apply—he believed that if I worked hard, I could succeed anywhere. In hindsight, it gave me room to grow and figure out what I truly wanted.

Q: What was your experience like during your PhD in physics?

A: I completed my PhD in physics at Ohio University, but I didn’t enjoy the research. I picked a problem in condensed matter theory that didn’t interest me, and I lacked the motivation to make real progress. I spent a lot of time hiking and even learning to play chess. Looking back, my work wasn’t impactful—but those years gave me space to grow up and reflect on what I truly cared about.

Q: What made you switch to biology after completing your PhD?

A: By the time I finished my PhD, I realized I didn’t want to spend my life doing second-rate physics. Biology, on the other hand, was tackling big questions—how the brain works, how proteins function, how life originates. I didn’t know much biology, but the field felt wide open. So I decided to start over and pursue a second PhD in biology. It was a risk, but it felt right.

Q: How difficult was it to switch fields and return to student life again?

A: It wasn’t easy. I was married with two small children, and I had to take undergraduate biology courses just to catch up. But we moved to UC San Diego, which had a great biology program and student housing overlooking the ocean. The environment made a big difference, and I was finally excited about what I was learning.

Q: Did your physics background help you in biology?

A: Yes—and no. My training in physics helped me with calculations and thinking quantitatively. That became useful when estimating whether certain experiments, like determining ribosome structure, would even work. But to truly contribute to biology, I had to stop thinking like a physicist and start asking questions that mattered to biologists. That mental shift was essential.

Q: For those unfamiliar, what exactly is a ribosome and why is it so important?

A: Ribosomes are molecular machines inside our cells that read genetic instructions and assemble proteins. And proteins do nearly everything—carry oxygen, detect light, help us move, think, and even heal. So while DNA carries the information, it’s the ribosome that turns that information into action. Without ribosomes, genes would just sit there unused.

Q: How did working on ribosomes become the centerpiece of your career?

A: I was fascinated by the scale of the challenge. Ribosomes are massive and complex—hundreds of thousands of atoms. Solving their structure felt like trying to map a city molecule by molecule. But it was also central to understanding life. I knew that if I could contribute meaningfully here, it would matter.

Q: Was there a defining “high point” in your ribosome research?

A: Absolutely. One moment stands out clearly—when we got our first clear images of parts of the ribosome. Seeing the structure emerge on the screen after years of effort was deeply fulfilling. More than awards, that moment of clarity was when we knew we had achieved something real.

Q: You gave up a comfortable job in Utah to move to Cambridge. What drove that decision?

A: It was one of the hardest choices I made. I had a great job, good salary, wonderful colleagues, and a beautiful home in Salt Lake City. But Cambridge offered stability of funding and the ideal environment to focus entirely on the ribosome. I knew that if I stayed in Utah and treated ribosome research as a side project, I wouldn’t be competitive. So I took the leap, hoping it would work out—and thankfully, it did.

Q: What kept you going through the more uncertain phases of your journey?

A: It was a mix of things. Early on, survival played a big role—I had a family to support. Curiosity drove the choice of problems, and over time, I kept trying to give myself the best chance to succeed. Recognition wasn’t on my mind initially. That comes later, when others start to see the impact of your work.

Q: How important is competition in the world of scientific research?

A: Very important, especially for major discoveries. Once something is uncovered, it’s out there—no one gets credit for finding it again. So being first matters. It’s not like surgery or teaching, where multiple people can do equally valuable work. In science, timing can define legacy.

Q: With the rise of AI, how do you see it transforming biology?

A: AI and computational methods are already reshaping biology. From analyzing genomes to modeling protein structures, these tools are accelerating discoveries. It’s not just about machine learning—statistics, data science, and image processing are now integral to modern biological research.

Q: A student asks: What defines life at the molecular level?

A: That’s a hard one. Life is often defined as a self-replicating, evolvable system. But that’s a narrow view. If we found life on another planet, it might not follow the same rules. Fundamentally, molecules don’t “know” anything—they just behave based on physics and chemistry. What we call life emerges from those interactions.

Q: Another student asks: How do individual cells give rise to consciousness?

A: We don’t really know. Consciousness is likely an emergent property—something that arises when networks of neurons become complex enough. But it’s still one of the biggest open questions in science. I find it fascinating, but I don’t work on it—I just admire the progress from a distance.

Q: What advice would you give to young students pursuing science today?

A: Try to build a broad foundation—study math, physics, chemistry, and biology for as long as you can before specializing. Those subjects often intersect, and you’ll need all of them. Also, don’t just chase what’s fashionable. Choose questions that genuinely interest you and that feel important, not just interesting.

Q: What fields excite you the most in the coming decades?

A: Neuroscience, definitely. Questions like how memory is stored or how the brain interprets a familiar face are still wide open. Developmental biology is another—understanding how a single cell becomes an entire organism. And outside biology, I’m excited about sustainability: biodegradable materials, non-lithium energy storage, and better medical technologies. There’s meaningful work to be done everywhere.

Q: You’ve written two popular science books—what was that experience like?

A: Rewarding, but very hard work. ‘Gene Machine’ and ‘Why We Die’ each took years to write. My editors weren’t scientists, which helped—they forced me to simplify and clarify. Writing a book is only worth it if you’re passionate about the subject. Otherwise, the effort isn’t justified.

Q: Any final thoughts for students or aspiring researchers watching this?

A: Be open to change. If you find something that excites you more than your current path, don’t be afraid to start over. Stay curious, stay persistent, and don’t lose sight of the bigger questions. Science is full of them—and your generation has a chance to answer many.

Q: Could you tell us what first sparked your interest in science?
A: My parents were both scientists, so I had some exposure to the scientific world early on.
But in my childhood, I was more drawn to literature—I enjoyed reading and writing far
more than science. It wasn’t until seventh or eighth grade that things shifted. A particularly
good science teacher and some hands-on experiments sparked my interest in physics, and
from there, my curiosity gradually grew.
Q: You didn’t get into IIT or medical college. How did that shape your path?
A: At the time, I applied to both IIT and Christian Medical College, but didn’t make it—partly
because my school curriculum didn’t align with the exam patterns, and my parents didn’t
believe in coaching classes. It was discouraging, but then I appeared for the National Science
Talent Search exam, and to my surprise, I came first in my state. That gave me the
confidence to pursue basic science seriously.
Q: What led you to pursue physics in Baroda instead of a mainstream
engineering or medical track?
A: My mother, more than my father, encouraged me to consider basic sciences. Baroda
University had a very progressive physics department at the time, with a modern
curriculum inspired by faculty who had returned from the US. Physics felt intellectually rich,
and at that age, I still saw biology as something dry—mostly memorization. So I chose
physics, thinking it represented the ‘real’ science.
Q: How did you end up going to the US for your PhD?
A: That wasn’t part of some grand plan. My father was on a short sabbatical in the US, and
around that time, Ohio University reached out to our department in Baroda, inviting
applications. It wasn’t a top-tier school, but the faculty had solid backgrounds. My father
encouraged me to apply—he believed that if I worked hard, I could succeed anywhere. In
hindsight, it gave me room to grow and figure out what I truly wanted.
Q: What was your experience like during your PhD in physics?
A: I completed my PhD in physics at Ohio University, but I didn’t enjoy the research. I picked
a problem in condensed matter theory that didn’t interest me, and I lacked the motivation
to make real progress. I spent a lot of time hiking and even learning to play chess. Looking
back, my work wasn’t impactful—but those years gave me space to grow up and reflect on
what I truly cared about.
Q: What made you switch to biology after completing your PhD?

A: By the time I finished my PhD, I realized I didn’t want to spend my life doing second-rate
physics. Biology, on the other hand, was tackling big questions—how the brain works, how
proteins function, how life originates. I didn’t know much biology, but the field felt wide
open. So I decided to start over and pursue a second PhD in biology. It was a risk, but it felt
right.
Q: How difficult was it to switch fields and return to student life again?
A: It wasn’t easy. I was married with two small children, and I had to take undergraduate
biology courses just to catch up. But we moved to UC San Diego, which had a great biology
program and student housing overlooking the ocean. The environment made a big
difference, and I was finally excited about what I was learning.
Q: Did your physics background help you in biology?
A: Yes—and no. My training in physics helped me with calculations and thinking
quantitatively. That became useful when estimating whether certain experiments, like
determining ribosome structure, would even work. But to truly contribute to biology, I had
to stop thinking like a physicist and start asking questions that mattered to biologists. That
mental shift was essential.
Q: For those unfamiliar, what exactly is a ribosome and why is it so important?
A: Ribosomes are molecular machines inside our cells that read genetic instructions and
assemble proteins. And proteins do nearly everything—carry oxygen, detect light, help us
move, think, and even heal. So while DNA carries the information, it’s the ribosome that
turns that information into action. Without ribosomes, genes would just sit there unused.
Q: How did working on ribosomes become the centerpiece of your career?
A: I was fascinated by the scale of the challenge. Ribosomes are massive and
complex—hundreds of thousands of atoms. Solving their structure felt like trying to map a
city molecule by molecule. But it was also central to understanding life. I knew that if I could
contribute meaningfully here, it would matter.
Q: Was there a defining “high point” in your ribosome research?
A: Absolutely. One moment stands out clearly—when we got our first clear images of parts
of the ribosome. Seeing the structure emerge on the screen after years of effort was deeply
fulfilling. More than awards, that moment of clarity was when we knew we had achieved
something real.
Q: You gave up a comfortable job in Utah to move to Cambridge. What drove
that decision?
A: It was one of the hardest choices I made. I had a great job, good salary, wonderful
colleagues, and a beautiful home in Salt Lake City. But Cambridge offered stability of funding
and the ideal environment to focus entirely on the ribosome. I knew that if I stayed in Utah
and treated ribosome research as a side project, I wouldn’t be competitive. So I took the
leap, hoping it would work out—and thankfully, it did.

Q: What kept you going through the more uncertain phases of your journey?
A: It was a mix of things. Early on, survival played a big role—I had a family to support.
Curiosity drove the choice of problems, and over time, I kept trying to give myself the best
chance to succeed. Recognition wasn’t on my mind initially. That comes later, when others
start to see the impact of your work.
Q: How important is competition in the world of scientific research?
A: Very important, especially for major discoveries. Once something is uncovered, it’s out
there—no one gets credit for finding it again. So being first matters. It’s not like surgery or
teaching, where multiple people can do equally valuable work. In science, timing can define
legacy.
Q: With the rise of AI, how do you see it transforming biology?
A: AI and computational methods are already reshaping biology. From analyzing genomes
to modeling protein structures, these tools are accelerating discoveries. It’s not just about
machine learning—statistics, data science, and image processing are now integral to
modern biological research.
Q: A student asks: What defines life at the molecular level?
A: That’s a hard one. Life is often defined as a self-replicating, evolvable system. But that’s a
narrow view. If we found life on another planet, it might not follow the same rules.
Fundamentally, molecules don’t “know” anything—they just behave based on physics and
chemistry. What we call life emerges from those interactions.
Q: Another student asks: How do individual cells give rise to consciousness?
A: We don’t really know. Consciousness is likely an emergent property—something that
arises when networks of neurons become complex enough. But it’s still one of the biggest
open questions in science. I find it fascinating, but I don’t work on it—I just admire the
progress from a distance.
Q: What advice would you give to young students pursuing science today?
A: Try to build a broad foundation—study math, physics, chemistry, and biology for as long
as you can before specializing. Those subjects often intersect, and you’ll need all of them.
Also, don’t just chase what’s fashionable. Choose questions that genuinely interest you and
that feel important, not just interesting.
Q: What fields excite you the most in the coming decades?
A: Neuroscience, definitely. Questions like how memory is stored or how the brain
interprets a familiar face are still wide open. Developmental biology is
another—understanding how a single cell becomes an entire organism. And outside biology,
I’m excited about sustainability: biodegradable materials, non-lithium energy storage, and
better medical technologies. There’s meaningful work to be done everywhere.
Q: You’ve written two popular science books—what was that experience like?

A: Rewarding, but very hard work. ‘Gene Machine’ and ‘Why We Die’ each took years to
write. My editors weren’t scientists, which helped—they forced me to simplify and clarify.
Writing a book is only worth it if you’re passionate about the subject. Otherwise, the effort
isn’t justified.
Q: Any final thoughts for students or aspiring researchers watching this?
A: Be open to change. If you find something that excites you more than your current path,
don’t be afraid to start over. Stay curious, stay persistent, and don’t lose sight of the bigger
questions. Science is full of them—and your generation has a chance to answer many.

1. Literature First, Science Later

Though born to scientist parents, Dr. Ramakrishnan’s early interests leaned toward reading and writing. It wasn’t until middle school, inspired by a gifted physics teacher, that he developed a passion for science.

2. From Tamil Nadu to Vadodara: A Multicultural Start

His childhood saw a major transition—moving from Tamil Nadu to Vadodara, switching languages and cultural settings. This early adaptation shaped his openness to change.

3. Crossing Continents for Higher Education

He pursued a PhD in physics in the United States, a decision influenced by his father’s sabbatical and an invitation from Ohio University. It became a turning point in his academic and personal journey.

4. A Bold Shift to Biology

After completing his physics PhD, he realized his heart wasn’t in it. Driven by deeper curiosity, he made a radical choice to start over—enrolling in a second PhD, this time in biology.

5. Learning Biology from Scratch

Despite holding a doctorate, he began learning biology at the undergraduate level, attending basic courses while also supporting a young family. His humility and determination were central to this transition.

6. Cracking the Ribosome Code

His research focused on decoding the ribosome—an essential molecular machine that translates genetic information into proteins. This work laid the foundation for key advances in molecular biology.

7. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2009)

His decades of focused research were honored with the Nobel Prize, recognizing his contributions to our fundamental understanding of how life builds itself at the molecular level.

8. Leaving Comfort to Pursue Purpose

Although he held a stable and well-paid academic position in Utah, he chose to move to Cambridge to immerse himself fully in ribosome research. It was a deliberate, courageous step toward scientific excellence.

In this edition of KPIT STEM Dialogues, we delve into the extraordinary journey of Henrik
Stiesdal, a true pioneer in the wind power industry. Known as one of the architects of modern
wind energy, Stiesdal’s career spans decades of innovation, leadership, and transformative
contributions to renewable energy. Here are the key takeaways from our insightful conversation.
Early Experimentation and Breakthroughs
Henrik Stiesdal’s journey began in 1976 with the creation of his first test wind turbine using
scrap materials. By 1979, his innovative design was licensed to Vestas, setting the foundation
for Denmark’s leadership in the global wind energy sector.
A Visionary of Offshore Wind
In 1991, Stiesdal oversaw the installation of the world’s first offshore wind farm, proving the
feasibility of harnessing wind energy in challenging marine environments and opening new
frontiers for renewable energy.
Prolific Innovator with Over 1,000 Patents
Stiesdal’s numerous patents include the groundbreaking IntegralBlade® technology and floating
wind platforms. His inventions have revolutionized wind turbine design, enhancing efficiency
and reliability across the industry.
Scaling Environmental Impact
Stiesdal estimates that one year of work in wind turbine manufacturing offsets the annual
carbon emissions of 650 Western individuals, highlighting the profound environmental
significance of his contributions.
Championing the Future of Renewables
Even after retiring from Siemens, Stiesdal continues to lead innovation through his company,
focusing on sustainable technologies like floating turbines and thermal storage, ensuring a
greener future for generations.
Conclusion
Henrik Stiesdal’s unparalleled contributions to wind power have shaped the global renewable
energy landscape. His work stands as a testament to the power of innovation and the potential
for technology to create a sustainable world. His story is an inspiration for aspiring engineers
and scientists eager to make a meaningful impact.

In this special edition of KPIT STEM Dialogues, we are thrilled to host Dr. Martin Green, one of the most influential figures in the solar energy revolution. Dr. Green, a Scientia Professor at the University of New South Wales, has been at the forefront of photovoltaic research for over four decades. His work has transformed the global solar industry, and today, more than 90% of the world’s solar panels are based on the technology developed by his research group. Here are the key takeaways from our enlightening conversation.

Early Education and Fascination with Physics
Dr. Green’s journey into the world of science began in high school, where he had a strong interest in mathematics and physics. A dedicated physics teacher and hands-on experiments with an oscilloscope nurtured his curiosity about electrical circuits, which ultimately led him to study electrical engineering at university. This decision paved the way for his lifelong commitment to renewable energy research.

The Shift to Solar Energy
While initially focused on microelectronics and semiconductors, Dr. Green’s interest in solar energy developed during his time as a young academic. His expertise in semiconductor physics made him uniquely suited to address the challenges of solar cell efficiency, setting the foundation for his groundbreaking work in photovoltaic technology.

Pioneering Research in Photovoltaics
Dr. Green and his team at the University of New South Wales have set world records in silicon solar cell efficiency for 30 of the last 40 years. Their invention of the Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC) technology revolutionized the solar industry, increasing cell efficiency and making solar power a viable, low-cost option for global energy production.

The Impact of the Tunneling Structures Breakthrough
A major breakthrough in Dr. Green’s research involved using tunneling structures in solar cells, which allowed for higher voltage output and greater efficiency. This research, combined with his team’s innovation in small-area contacts, laid the foundation for the world-leading efficiency records in silicon solar cells.

Driving the Global Solar Revolution
Over the last 50 years, the cost of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells has dropped by an astounding 99.8%, largely thanks to advancements led by Dr. Green and his collaborators. Today, solar energy is not only the most affordable form of electricity generation but also a key player in the fight against climate change. Dr. Green’s vision for the future includes continued improvements in solar cell efficiency and the scaling of renewable energy to meet the world’s growing demands.

Advancing Technology Through Competition and Collaboration
Dr. Green’s team has held multiple world records in solar efficiency, often pushing the boundaries through incremental improvements and strategic collaborations. He emphasized that while the journey toward higher efficiency has been gradual, each step has been vital in driving the solar industry forward.

The Future of Solar Energy
Dr. Green believes that the world is on the brink of an “energy revolution,” where solar and wind energy, combined with advancements in battery storage, will soon replace fossil fuels entirely. He sees tremendous potential for solar energy to continue reducing costs and expanding its applications, from residential rooftops to large-scale solar farms.

Advice for the Next Generation of Engineers
Dr. Green encourages young engineers and scientists to pursue careers in renewable energy, highlighting the vast opportunities in solar technology, grid design, and energy storage. He emphasizes the importance of persistence, creativity, and the willingness to explore new ideas, as the energy transformation will create countless new possibilities for innovation.

Conclusion
Dr. Martin Green’s contributions to solar energy have not only shaped the trajectory of renewable energy but have also provided humanity with a sustainable and affordable solution to the global energy crisis. His work stands as a testament to the power of scientific research in creating positive, lasting change. His insights and advice offer invaluable lessons for aspiring scientists and engineers looking to make a meaningful impact in the world.

In this special episode of KPIT STEM Dialogues, we are honored to have Dr. Hari Balakrishnan, a pioneering figure in the field of computer science and networking, join us. Dr. Balakrishnan’s illustrious career spans academia and industry, with groundbreaking contributions that have shaped modern communication technologies. Here are the highlights from our conversation.

Early Education and Career Beginnings
Dr. Balakrishnan grew up in a research-oriented household with parents who were both theoretical physicists. This intellectually stimulating environment naturally led him to pursue a career in technology. Initially inclined towards mathematics and physics, his passion for computer science was ignited during his time at IIT Madras.

Influence of Family and Early Interests
The atmosphere of scientific inquiry at home, coupled with access to a wide range of books, fostered his intellectual curiosity. While he had a brief interest in pursuing cricket, his academic path eventually led him to computer science, where he found his true calling.

Transition to Computer Science
Although he initially intended to study physics, Dr. Balakrishnan chose computer science at IIT Madras due to his high entrance exam rank. Despite the challenge of catching up with peers in programming, his dedication and interest grew, culminating in a deep love for the field during his graduate studies at Berkeley.

Key Research Projects
One of Dr. Balakrishnan’s first significant research projects involved graph algorithms at IIT Madras. At Berkeley, he focused on improving data communication for mobile computing, a project that laid the groundwork for his future contributions to networking and mobile sensing technologies.

Contributions to Networking and Congestion Control
Dr. Balakrishnan has made substantial contributions to the field of networking, particularly in congestion control and traffic management. His work aims to maintain high throughput and low latency in networks, ensuring smooth data flow for applications like video streaming and real- time communication.

Innovative Applications: B Cluster Project
The B Cluster project involved using drones for aerial sensing, demonstrating the potential of distributed algorithms in practical applications. This project highlighted the innovative use of technology to solve complex problems in new ways.

Balancing Academia and Industry
Dr. Balakrishnan’s career seamlessly blends academic research and industrial application. His roles as a professor and CTO at Cambridge Mobile Telematics allow him to pursue impactful research while addressing real-world challenges in road safety through telematics.

Leveraging Smartphones for Telematics
CMT’s use of smartphones for telematics exemplifies Dr. Balakrishnan’s ability to leverage widely available technology for large-scale applications. By utilizing existing sensors in smartphones, CMT provides real-time data on driving behavior, enhancing road safety.

Advice for Young Researchers
Dr. Balakrishnan emphasizes the importance of intellectual curiosity, starting with small, manageable projects, and improving communication skills. He advises young researchers to read widely and communicate effectively, as these skills are crucial for impactful research and collaboration.

Conclusion
Dr. Hari Balakrishnan’s journey from a research-oriented household to becoming a pivotal figure in computer science is truly inspiring. His contributions to networking, mobile sensing, and telematics, along with his philosophy on education and research, offer valuable lessons for students and professionals alike.

In this special episode of KPIT STEM Dialogues, we are honored to have Dr. Bjarne Stroustrup, the inventor of the C++ programming language, join us. Dr. Stroustrup’s extensive career spans academia and industry, with significant contributions that have shaped modern computing. Here are the highlights from our conversation.

Early Education and Career Beginnings

Dr. Stroustrup grew up in Aarhus, Denmark, in a working-class family. Despite attending the worst primary school in town, he was always curious and driven to learn. He worked various jobs to support himself and found his passion for programming and machine architecture during his university years.

Love for Mathematics

Initially interested in history, sociology, and philosophy, Dr. Stroustrup ultimately chose mathematics for its career prospects. His discovery of programming and computer science solidified his true calling.

Transformative Experience at Cambridge University

At Cambridge University, Dr. Stroustrup learned from Dr. David Wheeler through discussions and explorations of ideas, which taught him critical thinking and problem- solving.

Genesis of C++

Dr. Stroustrup created C++ to combine the hardware manipulation capabilities of C with the high-level features of Simula. Starting as “C with Classes,” it evolved into C++ to meet broader needs.

Evolving C++

C++ has significantly evolved over the years. Dr. Stroustrup emphasized listening to the community to continually improve the language while maintaining compatibility.

Thoughts on AI and Programming

Dr. Stroustrup sees potential in AI but believes it has a long way to go before it can be fully trusted. AI can handle routine tasks, freeing humans for more complex problems, but human insight and creativity remain essential.

Balancing Hobbies and Work

Dr. Stroustrup values hobbies like running, reading history, and listening to music to relax and think differently, preventing burnout and providing a broader perspective.

Advice to Students

Dr. Stroustrup advises students to get a broad, solid education and stay curious. He emphasizes the importance of a broad education and lifelong learning.

Conclusion

Dr. Bjarne Stroustrup’s journey from a small town in Denmark to becoming a pivotal figure in computer science is truly inspiring. His contributions to programming and his philosophy on education and life offer valuable lessons for students and professionals alike. We thank Dr. Stroustrup for sharing his insights and experiences with us.

In a recent edition of KPIT STEM Dialogues, Dr. Alan Finkel, an esteemed scientist and engineer, shared his extensive knowledge on green energy and neuroscience. Dr. Finkel’s career spans numerous fields, including his role as the architect of Australia’s Hydrogen mission.

Green Energy and Silicon

Dr. Finkel highlighted the importance of hydrogen in our future energy landscape. He explained that silicon, despite its insulating nature, becomes a powerful semiconductor when doped with small amounts of phosphorus or boron. This unique property makes silicon indispensable in electronic processing chips, which have continuously improved and outperformed potential competitors.

Lithium: The Queen of Batteries

Discussing lithium, Dr. Finkel emphasized its significance in rechargeable batteries for mobile phones and electric cars. Lithium’s light weight and high working voltage, coupled with its ability to store large amounts of energy, make it ideal for mobile applications. Lithium-ion batteries, known for their durability and safety, have become the backbone of modern portable technology.

Hydrogen’s Role in Achieving Net Zero Emissions

Hydrogen, which accounts for 90% of all atoms in the universe, is pivotal in achieving net zero emissions. Dr. Finkel detailed the potential of green hydrogen, produced via electrolysis using zero-emissions electricity, to revolutionize industries such as steelmaking and fertilizer production. Additionally, green hydrogen can be used to create synthetic jet fuel, significantly reducing carbon emissions from aviation.

Neuroscience and the Complexity of the Human Brain

With a background in neuroscience, Dr. Finkel described the human brain as the most complex device in the universe. Despite decades of research, our understanding remains limited, making neuroscience an exciting field for future exploration and discovery.

Advice for Aspiring STEM Students

Dr. Finkel encouraged young students to choose fields that fascinate them and to pursue their interests with dedication. He stressed the importance of staying curious, continually learning, and embracing challenges, as science and engineering offer endless opportunities for innovation.

Dr. Finkel’s insights provide a valuable perspective on the future of green energy and the boundless potential of scientific discovery. His words inspire current and future generations to explore and innovate, driving progress in science and technology.

In the inaugural edition of KPIT STEM Dialogues, Dr. Raghunath Mashelkar shared his extensive knowledge and vision for the future of science and technology. Known for his transformative work, Dr. Mashelkar has received numerous accolades, including the Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri. Here are some key takeaways from his conversation.

Key Areas of Future Impact

Dr. Mashelkar highlighted several areas that will significantly impact the future:

New Biology: He spoke about the advancements in synthetic biology and CRISPR-Cas9, emphasizing how these technologies will revolutionize genome editing, tackle genetic diseases, and enhance agriculture to withstand climate change.

Digital Technologies: Dr. Mashelkar discussed the exponential growth of AI, machine learning, cloud computing, and quantum computing. These technologies are set to transform industries and daily life by increasing efficiency and enabling new innovations.

Clean Energy Technologies: Addressing climate change, Dr. Mashelkar stressed the importance of decarbonization technologies like green hydrogen, which is produced via water electrolysis using renewable energy.

Interdisciplinary Collaboration: He emphasized the importance of breaking down barriers between different scientific fields to foster significant breakthroughs and innovations.

Life Lessons and Advice:

Reflecting on his extraordinary journey from studying under streetlights to becoming a leading scientist, Dr. Mashelkar shared several key lessons:

Power of Ideas: Innovative thinking can compete globally, regardless of resources.

Risk-Taking: Embrace bold and audacious ideas.

Borderlessness: Promote interdisciplinary collaboration.

Inclusion: Leverage high technology to benefit the poor.

Continuous Improvement: Always strive for excellence and believe that the best is yet to come.

A Glimpse into His Week

Dr. Mashelkar remains highly active, balancing various roles. His week typically includes giving awards, chairing advisory councils, working on his upcoming book on exponential improvement, and engaging with academic and industry leaders.

Achievements and Challenges

Among his proudest achievements, Dr. Mashelkar mentioned being elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society, a recognition few Indian engineers have received. He also played a pivotal role in establishing Technology Day in India. Despite facing challenges and opposition, his perseverance and commitment to the greater good have always guided him.

Vision for the Future

Looking ahead, Dr. Mashelkar envisions a world driven by digitalization, democratization, and decarbonization. He advises young scientists to embrace these changes, focus on interdisciplinary learning, and strive to make a positive impact.

Dr. Mashelkar’s insights and experiences offer valuable lessons for aspiring scientists and engineers. His commitment to innovation and societal betterment continues to inspire and guide future generations.

Q: You’ve had a remarkable career spanning several decades. Could you start by sharing what initially inspired you to pursue your field of work?

A: My journey began during my early education. Growing up in Denmark, I was surrounded by windmills, which naturally sparked my curiosity. Later, a combination of personal observations and the energy crisis of the 1970s motivated me to explore wind energy as a viable alternative.

Q: What led you to specialize in your area of expertise, and how has it evolved over the years?

A: My initial interest in wind energy was born out of necessity and curiosity. During the oil crisis, energy prices soared, and I saw an opportunity to experiment with wind turbines. Over time, as the industry matured, advancements in technology and increasing global interest in renewable energy have significantly shaped the field.

Q: One of your notable achievements is your contribution to innovation in the field. Could you highlight some of the key milestones in your work?

A: A significant milestone was designing and building my first 15-kilowatt wind turbine, which provided enough power for our farm and even generated surplus electricity. Collaborating with manufacturers like Vestas to commercialize turbine designs was another turning point, laying the foundation for a thriving wind industry.

Q: How did your collaboration with colleagues and students contribute to the progress of your work?

A: Collaboration has been crucial throughout my career. Working with manufacturers, engineers, and even students helped refine turbine designs and solve challenges. Sharing knowledge and ideas in a collaborative environment often led to breakthroughs that I couldn’t have achieved alone.

Q: What are some of the factors that have influenced the cost and accessibility of solutions in your field?

A: Initially, wind turbines were expensive due to the limited scale of production. Over time, economies of scale, technological advancements, and global demand have driven down costs, making wind energy one of the most affordable renewable energy sources today.

Q: Looking to the future, how do you see the field transforming, and what are its potential implications for society?

A: I believe wind energy will play a pivotal role in transitioning to a sustainable future. With larger and more efficient turbines, offshore wind farms, and integrated energy storage solutions, the potential for wind power to replace fossil fuels is immense, paving the way for a cleaner, greener world.

Q: Could you share any moments of insight or breakthrough that were particularly meaningful in your career?

A: One memorable breakthrough was the realization that a simple design adjustment could significantly improve turbine efficiency. Another was partnering with Vestas to scale up production, which proved that collaboration and resource-sharing could accelerate industry growth.

Q: What advice would you give to young professionals entering this field today?

A: Stay curious and hands-on. The best learning often comes from experimenting and solving real-world problems. Build strong networks, as collaboration is key in this field. And above all, remain persistent—innovation takes time, but the impact is worth the effort.

Q: Dr. Martin Green, you’ve had a career spanning over 50 years in the solar energy field. Could you start by telling us what first sparked your interest in science and technology?

My journey into science began in high school, where I was deeply influenced by a talented physics teacher and the experiments we did, such as observing electrical signals on an oscilloscope. Mathematics and physics were always my strongest subjects, and my early experiences in studying electrical circuits steered me toward electrical engineering. The rapid developments in microelectronics at the time further solidified my interest and guided me toward a career in semiconductor electronics and later into solar energy.

Q: What led you to focus on solar photovoltaic (PV) technology, and how has it evolved over the years?

My work in semiconductor electronics eventually intersected with solar energy when I began researching how to improve the efficiency of solar cells. In the 1970s, solar cells were primarily used in spacecraft because they were expensive, but the 1970s oil crisis spurred interest in alternative energy sources. Over time, the focus shifted to making solar cells cheaper and more accessible for widespread use on Earth. Today, solar PV technology has become the most affordable source of electricity, and my team’s contributions, such as the development of the PERC (Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell) structure, have helped drive this progress.

Q: One of your significant contributions was improving the efficiency of solar cells. Could you explain some of the key breakthroughs your team achieved?

The efficiency of solar cells is a measure of how much sunlight is converted into usable electricity. When I started my research, the efficiency of solar cells was around 16.5%. Through continuous innovation, such as the tunneling structures and PERC technology, we incrementally improved the voltage and power output of cells. Over the years, we set 13 or 14 successive world records in silicon cell efficiency, eventually achieving a record of 40.6% efficiency in converting sunlight to electricity. Each incremental improvement was significant, and this process took over 25 years of dedicated research.

Q: What role did your students play in the growth of the solar industry, particularly in China?

I had six PhD students from China in the 1980s and 90s, and many of them became pioneers in China’s solar manufacturing industry. One of my students set up the first commercial solar cell production line in China in 2002, at a time when the country lacked the necessary infrastructure. He, along with others, built companies that have since become global leaders in solar manufacturing. Their work was crucial in lowering the cost of solar cells, and China’s dominance in the industry today can be partly attributed to their efforts.

Q: How have the costs of solar cells changed, and what has driven this dramatic reduction?

The cost of solar modules has dropped by 99.8% over the last 50 years, which is a staggering achievement. This has been driven by technological advancements like PERC and Topcon (Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact) structures, which improved efficiency, as well as economies of scale as the industry grew. The competition within the industry has also played a major role in driving down costs. Today, solar power is cheaper than electricity generated from fossil fuels like coal and natural gas.

Q: Looking forward, what do you see as the future of solar energy, and how do you envision it transforming global energy use?

I believe we are at the beginning of an energy revolution, driven by the affordability and scalability of solar power. Solar energy has the potential to provide 100 times more energy than what the world currently uses from fossil fuels. I foresee a future where solar and wind power dominate, coupled with energy storage solutions like batteries. This will allow us to move away from dirty fossil fuels and towards a sustainable, renewable energy future. In countries like Australia, we are already seeing solar rapidly displacing coal, and I expect this trend to accelerate globally.

Q: You mentioned earlier the importance of both continuous hard work and conceptual breakthroughs in achieving success. Could you share some examples of these “aha” moments in your research?

One of the key conceptual breakthroughs was the idea of using small-area contacts in solar cells, which we developed in the 1980s. This method improved efficiency by reducing resistance and enhancing the directional movement of electrons. Another significant moment was the discovery that we could heat the devices to higher temperatures than previously thought, which led to further efficiency gains. These kinds of insights, combined with persistent incremental improvements, have been crucial in advancing the field.

Q: For young scientists and engineers entering the field today, what advice would you offer?

My advice would be to remain intellectually curious and persistent. Solar energy is a rapidly evolving field with many exciting opportunities. Start small, tackle manageable problems, and build from there. Additionally, communication skills are vital — being able to convey complex ideas effectively can make all the difference in research and innovation. We’re on the verge of massive changes in the energy landscape, and there are endless possibilities for young researchers to make a significant impact.

Q: Welcome to another exciting episode of KPIT STEM Dialogues. We are honored to have Dr. Hari Balakrishnan with us today. Dr. Balakrishnan, welcome to KPIT STEM Dialogues, and thank you for accepting our invitation.

Hari Balakrishnan: Thank you. It’s wonderful to be here.

Q: Dr. Balakrishnan, your background is impressive, encompassing academia and industry. Currently, you’re a Fujitsu Professor at MIT in the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL). Could you tell us about your early education and what motivated you to pursue a career in technology?

Hari Balakrishnan: I grew up in a research-oriented household where my parents were both theoretical physicists. This environment, coupled with my curiosity about how things work, naturally led me to pursue a career in technology. Initially, I was more inclined towards mathematics and physics, but during my time at IIT Madras, I discovered my passion for computer science.

Q: You mentioned that both your parents are distinguished theoretical physicists. How did that environment influence your career?

Hari Balakrishnan: Growing up in a household filled with discussions about research and science definitely had an impact. My parents never pressured us to follow a specific path, but their passion for their work and the access to a plethora of books at home instilled in me a love for learning and research.

Q: Your early interest was in Mathematics and Physics. How did you transition to computer science?

Hari Balakrishnan: Initially, I was set on pursuing physics, but I got a good grade in the entrance exam and chose Computer Science at IIT Madras. Although I had to work hard to catch up in my first programming course, by the end of my studies, I had fallen in love with Computer Science. This passion was further solidified during my graduate studies at Berkeley.

Q: Could you share an early research project that you worked on during your undergraduate or graduate days?

Hari Balakrishnan: One of my first research projects was on graph algorithms at IIT Madras. Later, at Berkeley, I worked on improving data communication for mobile computing, which was crucial as laptops and the web were just emerging. This project laid the foundation for my future work in networking and Mobile Sensing Technologies.

Q: You’ve made significant contributions to the field of Networking, especially with your work on congestion control and traffic management. Can you explain the importance of this work?

Hari Balakrishnan: Efficient congestion control is essential for maintaining high throughput and low latency in networks, which is critical for applications like video streaming and real-time communication. My work has focused on developing algorithms that ensure data flows smoothly and efficiently across the network.

Q: You’ve also explored innovative applications like using drones for aerial sensing. Can you tell us more about the B Cluster project and its implications?

Hari Balakrishnan: The B Cluster project involved using drones for aerial sensing and creating a network that could be used for various tasks such as mapping and monitoring. This project combined distributed algorithms with practical applications, showcasing the potential of drones in gathering and processing data efficiently.

Q: Balancing roles in academia and industry must be challenging. How do you manage your time and responsibilities across these domains?

Hari Balakrishnan: It’s all about collaboration and leveraging the strengths of exceptional colleagues and students. While academic projects may have longer impact timelines, industry projects often demand quicker results. Maintaining a balance between these roles requires continuous learning and adaptation.

Q: Your work at CMT focuses on making roads safer through Telematics. Why did you choose to leverage smartphones for this purpose?

Hari Balakrishnan: Smartphones come equipped with the necessary sensors and are widely available, making them an economical choice for scaling Telematics. Our goal at CMT is to use these devices to provide real-time data on driving behavior, helping to improve road safety.

Q: Reflecting on your career, what advice would you give to young researchers, especially in India?

Hari Balakrishnan: First, embrace intellectual curiosity and always ask questions. Start with small, manageable projects and build from there. Second, read widely and improve your communication skills. Being able to convey your ideas effectively is just as important as the ideas themselves.

Q: Thank you so much, Dr. Balakrishnan, for sharing your insights and experiences. It has been a pleasure talking to you.

Hari Balakrishnan: Thank you. It’s been great to be here. Keep asking questions and stay curious. Have a wonderful day.

Q: Welcome to this episode of KPIT STEM Dialogues. We are extremely happy and honored to have with us today Dr. Bjarne Stroustrup. Dr. Stroustrup, welcome to the show, and thank you for accepting our invitation.

Bjarne Stroustrup: Thank you. It’s a pleasure to be here.

Q: Dr. Stroustrup, you have an impressive background, weaving together work in academia and industry. Currently, you’re a professor of computer science at Columbia University. Before that, you were with Morgan Stanley, Texas A&M, and Bell Labs. Could you tell us about your early education and what motivated you to pursue a career in science?

Bjarne Stroustrup: I grew up in Aarhus, Denmark, in a working-class family. I attended the worst primary school in town, but I was always curious and interested in learning. I had various jobs to earn pocket money, like delivering milk and newspapers. When I got to university, I found programming and machine architecture fascinating. I paid for my education by programming, and although education in Denmark is free, you still need to live, so it helped.

Q: Mathematics seems to have been a significant part of your early education. Was it your favorite subject?

Bjarne Stroustrup: Yes, mathematics was a favorite of mine. Initially, I thought of pursuing history, sociology, or philosophy, but I realized math was a better career choice. I signed up for mathematics at my local university. However, once I discovered programming and computer science, I knew that was my true calling.

Q: Mathematics seems to have been a significant part of your early education. Was it your favorite subject?

Bjarne Stroustrup: Yes, mathematics was a favorite of mine. Initially, I thought of pursuing history, sociology, or philosophy, but I realized math was a better career choice. I signed up for mathematics at my local university. However, once I discovered programming and computer science, I knew that was my true calling.

Q: You have spoken warmly about your experience with Dr. David Wheeler at Cambridge University. Can you share how that influenced your career?

Bjarne Stroustrup: My time at Cambridge was transformative. Dr. Wheeler used a teaching method that involved discussing ideas and exploring alternatives rather than just delivering lectures. This approach taught me how to think critically and approach problems as a scientist and engineer. It was a significant shift from the classical education I received earlier.

Q: Can you tell us about the genesis of C++? What inspired you to create it?

The idea for C++ came from my need to combine the efficient hardware manipulation capabilities of C with the high-level features of Simula, such as classes and object-oriented programming. I started developing C++ at Bell Labs to build a distributed computer system. The initial version, called “C with Classes,” evolved into C++ as I added more features to meet the needs of my colleagues and myself.

Q: C++ has evolved significantly over the years. How do you manage to keep the language fresh and relevant?

It’s essential to listen to the community and understand their needs. I look at what people are doing with C++ and what they would like to do. We then work on improving the language by strengthening its good aspects and finding alternatives for what doesn’t work well. Compatibility is crucial; we aim to simplify the language’s use without breaking existing code.

Q: What are your thoughts on AI and its impact on programming?

AI and large language models have potential, but they have a long way to go before they can be fully trusted. They can handle routine tasks well, which frees up humans to focus on more complex problems. However, designing systems and understanding real problems still require human insight and creativity.

Q: How do your hobbies and interests outside of computer science contribute to your work?

Activities like running, reading history, and listening to music help me relax and think differently. They prevent burnout and provide a broader perspective. For example, I get some of my best ideas while running. It’s crucial to have a well- rounded life to sustain a long and productive career.

Q: How do your hobbies and interests outside of computer science contribute to your work?

Activities like running, reading history, and listening to music help me relax and think differently. They prevent burnout and provide a broader perspective. For example, I get some of my best ideas while running. It’s crucial to have a well- rounded life to sustain a long and productive career.

Q: What advice would you give to students pursuing a career in computer science?

First of all, get a broad, solid education—the best you can get. Don’t think you know exactly what you’ll need; the most useful subjects might surprise you. Go for a broad education and stay curious. Remember, it’s life, not just the next project.

Q: Thank you so much, Dr. Stroustrup, for sharing your insights and experiences. It’s been a pleasure talking to you.

Thank you. It’s been great being here. Have a wonderful day.

Q: Dr. Finkel, you have had a diverse and impactful career. Can you tell us about your journey and what sparked your initial interest in science?

Dr. Finkel: My journey began with a passion for silicon over 50 years ago. As a teenager, I was fascinated by electronics and went on to study electrical engineering. This foundation led me to explore various fields, including neuroscience and entrepreneurship.

Q: You mentioned silicon as a significant part of your career. What makes silicon so special in the world of electronics?

Dr. Finkel: Silicon is extraordinary because it can be doped with small amounts of phosphorus or boron to introduce charge carriers, making it a semiconductor. This allows silicon to carry current, form PN junctions, and create transistors. Its versatility and stability have kept it at the forefront of technology, despite many predictions of its obsolescence.

Q: Let’s talk about lithium. Why is lithium so important in today’s technology?

Dr. Finkel: Lithium is the queen of batteries. It has the highest energy storage density per kilogram and the highest working voltage among metals used in batteries. Lithium-ion batteries are lightweight, can be discharged thousands of times, and maintain their charge well. This makes them ideal for mobile applications like electric vehicles and portable electronics.

Q: What are some key figures you mentioned about lithium?

Dr. Finkel: Lithium has an atomic weight of 7, making it the lightest metal. It provides a working voltage of 3.7 volts in batteries, compared to 2.5 volts for sodium and 2.2 volts for lead. This combination of light weight and high voltage makes lithium batteries exceptionally efficient.

Q: Hydrogen is another topic you are passionate about. Can you explain its potential and significance?

Dr. Finkel: Hydrogen is the green molecule of the future. It can be produced through electrolysis using renewable energy, resulting in zero carbon emissions. Hydrogen is abundant and can be used in fuel cells to generate electricity, heat, and water. It’s crucial for achieving net-zero emissions, especially in applications where high-density energy storage is needed, such as long-distance freight and steelmaking.

Q: You have also made significant contributions to neuroscience. Can you share some insights from your work in this field?

Dr. Finkel: My work in neuroscience includes founding Axon Instruments, which develops high-end scientific tools for brain research. One fascinating aspect of the brain is neuroplasticity, the ability to form new neural connections throughout life. This adaptability is fundamental to learning, memory, and recovery from injuries.

Q: What impact do you hope your work will have on future generations?

Dr. Finkel: I hope to inspire and educate the next generation of scientists and engineers. Interdisciplinary learning and innovation are crucial for solving complex global challenges. Whether through advancements in energy, neuroscience, or education, I believe in the power of science to drive progress and improve lives.

Q: Finally, what advice would you give to students pursuing careers in science and technology?

Dr. Finkel: Get a broad and solid education. Stay curious and open to learning across disciplines. The challenges of the future will require integrated solutions, so be prepared to think creatively and work collaboratively. And always remember, science is not just about knowledge; it’s about making a positive impact on the world.
Dr. Alan Finkel’s insights and experiences highlight the importance of interdisciplinary approaches and the transformative power of science and technology. His contributions continue to inspire and guide future generations in their pursuit of knowledge and innovation.

Q: Welcome to the first edition of KPIT STEM Dialogues. We are very happy to have Dr. Raghunath Mashelkar as our first speaker. Dr. Mashelkar is a world-renowned scientist known for his transformative work in the field of science and technology. He has received numerous awards, including the Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri. He has also been the Director General of CSIR and has received 45 honorary doctorates from institutions around the world.

Q: Dr. Mashelkar, you have been involved in various scientific and academic institutions and have led numerous initiatives. What are the four or five areas of scientific development that you think will be highly impactful over the next 25-30 years?

Dr. Raghunath Mashelkar: Thank you for having me. There are several key areas that will be highly impactful:

New Biology: Advances in synthetic biology and tools like CRISPR-Cas9 have revolutionized our ability to read and write genomes. This will enable us to address genetic diseases and create plants that can withstand climate change.

Digital Technologies: Exponential technologies such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, cloud computing, and quantum computing will continue to grow. These technologies will transform industries and improve our daily lives.

Clean Energy Technologies: To combat climate change, we need to focus on decarbonization. This includes developing technologies like green hydrogen, which is produced through water electrolysis using renewable energy sources.

Interdisciplinary Collaboration: The future of science lies in breaking down the borders between different fields. Interdisciplinary research will lead to significant breakthroughs and innovations.

Q: Your life has been an extraordinary journey, from studying under streetlights to becoming a renowned scientist. What lessons have you learned, and what advice would you give to young students?

Dr. Raghunath Mashelkar: My journey has taught me several important lessons:

Power of Ideas: It’s not the power of the budget that matters, but the power of ideas. Innovative thinking can compete globally, regardless of resources.

Risk-Taking: Embrace adventurous and audacious ideas. Failure should be seen as a First Attempt In Learning (FAIL).

Borderlessness: Interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial. Break down the borders between different fields of science and engineering.

Inclusion: Make high technology work for the poor. Science should help improve the lives of the underprivileged.

Continuous Improvement: Always believe that your best is yet to come. Keep striving for excellence every day.

Q: At the age of 80, you remain incredibly active. Can you describe a typical week in your life?

Dr. Raghunath Mashelkar: My weeks are filled with diverse activities. Last week, for example, I gave awards in Sangli, chaired an advisory council at IIT Bombay Research Academy, worked on my upcoming book on exponential improvement, interviewed a candidate for the Jio Institute, and attended several other engagements. Balancing academic, industry, and social responsibilities keeps me energized and motivated.

Q: What do you see as your dearest achievements and moments of despair?

Dr. Raghunath Mashelkar: One of my proudest achievements is being elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society, a recognition that only three Indian engineers have received since 1660. Another was playing a role in establishing Technology Day in India, which celebrates significant scientific and technological achievements. Moments of despair include the challenges and opposition faced when implementing transformative changes, but perseverance and commitment to the greater good have always guided me through.

Q: Looking ahead, how do you envision the world of science 25 years from now, and what advice do you have for our audience?

Dr. Raghunath Mashelkar: The world of science will be dominated by digitalization, democratization, and decarbonization. Innovations in these areas will drive exponential changes, creating new opportunities and challenges. My advice is to embrace these changes, focus on interdisciplinary learning, and strive to make a positive impact. Remember, your aspirations are your possibilities. Keep pushing boundaries and believe that your best is yet to come.

Dr. Raghunath Mashelkar’s journey and insights highlight the power of perseverance, innovation, and a commitment to making science work for the betterment of society. His contributions continue to inspire and guide future generations.